During COVID-19, exceptional public health measures were adopted by nations to secure their populations from disease and death. In imperial Japan, practices and discourses of public health played an equally important role in transforming the nation into a civilizing power fit to survive in the modern world. From Nagayo Sensai’s (長与専斎) adaptation of the Daoist notion of weisheng (衛生) into Japanese biomedical practices of eisei (衛生) to Gotō Shimpei’s (後藤新平) interpretation of eisei as a colonial technique of population management, public health served as an important site mediating the colonial relationship between empires and colonies, the modern and its others, the fit and the unfit.* Has COVID-19 brought new meanings to weisheng/eisei and its colonial implications? What can we learn from the practice of mask-wearing in Taiwan then and now?

By Chen Li-hang (陳力航)
Translated by: Dijie Lei
Edited by: Yu-Han Huang, Elizabeth Shaw, and Sabrina Teng-io Chung

The piece first appeared on StoryStudio  and was translated and published with the permission of the publisher.

When Taiwan first saw its outbreak of confirmed COVID-19 cases in 2020, not only were schools delaying reopening, but masks were also in short supply. People were rushing to stores to purchase masks. Meanwhile, TV and the internet were discussing and explaining when the public need to wear masks and what other preventive measures are available. Nevertheless, infectious diseases are not a modern product. In the old days, a flu or encephalitis could cause a serious epidemic. How did Taiwan combat epidemics and educate the public in the past?

THE STARTING POINT OF PUBLIC HEALTH AWARENESS: THE JAPANESE PERIOD 

We discuss this issue beginning with the Japanese colonial period because it was when Taiwan established its modern public health system. The Government-General of Taiwan (台湾総督府) carried out many policies and constructions in the Japanese colonial period. Although it was linked to colonial interests, Taiwan’s public health dramatically improved.

An influential Japanese colonial period newspaper named Taiwan Nichinichi Shimpo published articles, reports and even manga on the topic of the use of masks. For instance, on November 23, 1941, a report titled “The Way to Wear A Mask” advocated the purposes of wearing masks. The report stated that people could wear a mask when in crowded or dusty spaces or when they showed cough symptoms. However, given the chilly temperature in [certain parts of] Taiwan, and the orderliness and cleanliness of Taihoku (Taipei) city, wearing a mask was unnecessary. [1] The report was written based on Taiwan’s climate and cleanliness.

On January 21 of the same year, Taiwan Nichinichi Shimpo also published an article titled “Masks and Health: Wearing A Mask Only When Catching a Flu” written by Tatebayashi Nobuo, a staffer from the Epidemic Prevention Section, Prevention Bureau of the Ministry of Welfare (厚生省豫防局). Tatebayashi argued that wearing a mask would prevent influenza and keep throats from getting cold. [2]

However, just a week  before the article was published, the southern city of Takao (Kaohsiung) reported 6 encephalitis cases in a week, which surprised the Takao health officials as only 1 encephalitis case was confirmed in the past year. In just one short week, the number of confirmed cases rose to 6. The Takao health officials warned citizens to wear masks when going out. [3] Encephalitis was a meningitis epidemic , which can be transmitted through droplets. People had to wear masks when there were confirmed cases nearby. Meningitis did not only occur in Takao, according to previous reports from Taiwan Nichinichi Shimpo. [3] On March 21, 1935, the Taihoku North Police Station confirmed 4 cases of encephalitis, 3 of which resulted in death.

In light of the event, the North Police Station’s health section conducted multiple epidemic prevention measures. From March 20, paper face masks were provided at the entrance of cinema and theatres upon admission to prevent the spread of virus. [4] Earlier that month, the Giran (宜蘭, Yilan) County Police Station had made efforts to prevent the spread of encephalitis, such that the Theatre “Giranza” staff were required to distribute masks to all guests. Guests must wear masks in the theatre or they would be forced to leave. [5]

THE VARIETY OF MASKS MATERIALS DURING THE JAPANESE PERIOD

Although news reports encouraged people to wear masks at the time, what were the masks made of and how much did they cost? Aside from paper masks, masks were also available in wool and leather.

A trading company's journal provided good examples. From Nakajima Shoji Corporation Journal Vol. 214 "Winter Goods" issue, masks were available in several styles. From the images provided by the journal, we could see that the function of masks gave emphasis on heat preservation, protection from the cold, and hygienic measures – functions that are similar to masks today. [6]

Wool masks were available in two different styles.  One came with earmuffs that cost 90 sen (0.9 yen). The other one was the woolen mask with 4 different price points, ranging from 60 sen to 95 sen.  The wool masks, especially the middle one in the picture, are almost identical to modern masks in terms of style. The outer pocket of the mask was made of paper material used for medicinal wrapping at the time.

There were also two kinds of leather masks. One made from artificial leather and was sold at the cheapest at 58 sen and the most expensive at 120 sen. The other used full-leather (総皮), or genuine leather and cost 180 sen at the highest price. The leather masks were diamond shaped–different from the type of masks prevalent today.

Nakajima Shoji Corporation, which published the journal, was based in Nagoya and had partnerships with shops in Taiwan. The commodities displayed in the journal are all-encompassing with 93 categories, each of which containing many sub-categories. In addition to the short advertising slogan and price information, the journal also displayed their well-made pictures. In an era without the internet, the journal served as an online retailer on paper. 

Were the masks aforementioned affordable for the people at the time? We need to look at the standard wages during the Japanese period. In 1934, the year of the publication of the Nakajima Shoji Journal volume, a teacher who served at local primary schools earned approximately 40 to 70 yen per month, based on his length of service. This example reveals the discrepancy between the price of masks and a teacher’s salary. [7]

There are also records of mask wearing shown in the diaries of Taiwanese people during the Japanese colonial period. For example, Dr. Ngôo Sin-îng (吳新榮, 1907-1967) practiced medicine at Kari (佳里, Jiali), Tainan. Dr. Ngôo recorded that in the morning of January 13, 1939, he put on many layers of clothing and a mask before hopping into a rickshaw to make a doctor’s visit. At the time, “a doctor’s visit” meant that doctors would visit their patient’s homes for appointments, which usually cost more. Some doctors would stay in their clinics in the morning and make visits in the afternoon. Other doctors like Dr. Ngôo  went for visits in the morning. [8] The reasons Dr. Ngôo  wore masks are nothing but for cold protection and infection prevention during his medical practice.

When the COVID-19 epidemic erupted in Taiwan, many people started to wear masks.  Masks went out of stock as the market demand increased. The government had to develop responsive policies, such as purchasing machines to increase mask production, deploying national armies to assist with production and applying real-name systems for the purchase of masks. These actions targeted the control and stabilization of masks supply. Comparing the current development of Taiwanese society with the Japanese period, are there nuances in the ways that the government advocates for the wearing of masks to prevent epidemics?

*Acknowledgment:
The preface is written with reference to historian Ruth Rogaski’s research on the translingual renderings of eisei/weisheng in Meiji Japan and Treaty-port China. See Hygienic Modernity: Meanings of Health and Disease in Treaty-Port China. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004.

Footnotes:

[1] “The Way to Wear A Mask.” Taiwan Nichinichi Shimpo. November 23, 1941. 4th Edition.

[2] “Masks and Health: Wearing A Mask Only When Catching a Flu.” Taiwan Nichinichi Shimpo. January 21, 1941. 3rd Edition.

[3] “Mask Wearing For Outdoor Activities: Meningitis in Takao.” Taiwan Nichinichi Shimpo. January 15, 1941. 4th Edition.

[4] “The Use of Paper Masks When Entering Theaters: The North Police Station’s Meningitis Preventive Measures.” Taiwan Nichinichi Shimpo. March 21, 1935. 7th Edition.

[5] “Those Who Do Not Wear a Mask Are Ordered to Leave the Theater: The Defense Team Against Meningitis in Giran.” Taiwan Nichinichi Shimpo. March, 9, 1935. 3rd Edition.

[6] Nakajima, Kenichi ed. “Winter Goods.” Nakajima Shoji Corporation Journal, vol. 214. October, 1934, 20-21.

[7] Government-General of Taiwan ed. Records of the Government-General of Taiwan and Its Staffers. Taihoku: Government-General of Taiwan, 1934. 377-78.

[8] Ngôo Sin-îng, “Janurary 13, 1939.” Diary of Ngôo Sin-îng. Edited by Zhang Liang-ze. Taiwan Diary Knowledge Bank (臺灣日記知識庫). Institute of Taiwan History, Academia Sinica. February 6, 2020. http://taco.ith.sinica.edu.tw/tdk/吳新榮日記/1939-01-13